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Imam Ali
Justice — during his brief caliphate, he held that not even his closest relatives were exempt from fair treatment or undue privilege.
Ali ibn Abi Talib was born around 600 CE in Mecca, into the Banu Hashim clan; his father, Abu TalibMuhammad's uncle and, after Abd al-Muttalib's death, head of the Banu Hashim clan. Although he never converted to Islam himself, he protected Muhammad from Quraysh's opponents until his death., was Muhammad's uncle and most important protector. During Mecca's hard years, Muhammad took Abu TalibMuhammad's uncle and, after Abd al-Muttalib's death, head of the Banu Hashim clan. Although he never converted to Islam himself, he protected Muhammad from Quraysh's opponents until his death.'s young son into his own household to raise — repaying the care Abu TalibMuhammad's uncle and, after Abd al-Muttalib's death, head of the Banu Hashim clan. Although he never converted to Islam himself, he protected Muhammad from Quraysh's opponents until his death. himself had shown Muhammad as a child. Still a boy of about ten, Ali was among the first to believe in Muhammad's message. In 623 CE, around age twenty-three, he married Muhammad's daughter Fatima, and fought alongside him at the battles of Badr, Uhud, the Trench, and KhaybarA Jewish oasis settlement north of Medina, in present-day Saudi Arabia, conquered by the Muslims after a siege in 628 CE. According to a well-known account, Ali ibn Abi Talib played a prominent role in the battle, breaching the gate of one of its forts.. Ali was finally chosen as the fourth caliph in 656 CE, after a quarter-century away from the caliphate, but his brief rule (656–661 CE) was marked by civil war. He was martyred in 661 CE, around age sixty-one, in the mosque of KufaA city in present-day Iraq that Ali ibn Abi Talib made his capital during his caliphate (656–661 CE), and where he was martyred while praying in the city's mosque., in present-day Iraq, while at prayer.
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Ali was born around 600 CE in Mecca, to Abu TalibMuhammad's uncle and, after Abd al-Muttalib's death, head of the Banu Hashim clan. Although he never converted to Islam himself, he protected Muhammad from Quraysh's opponents until his death. and Fatima bint Asad, of the Banu Hashim clan. According to an account found mostly in Shia sources, he was born inside the Kaaba itself; Sunni sources generally do not confirm this detail. During a period when drought had strained Abu TalibMuhammad's uncle and, after Abd al-Muttalib's death, head of the Banu Hashim clan. Although he never converted to Islam himself, he protected Muhammad from Quraysh's opponents until his death.'s large household financially, Muhammad took his young cousin in to raise — repaying, in effect, years of care and protection Abu TalibMuhammad's uncle and, after Abd al-Muttalib's death, head of the Banu Hashim clan. Although he never converted to Islam himself, he protected Muhammad from Quraysh's opponents until his death. had given Muhammad in his own childhood.
When Muhammad received his first revelation, Ali was a young boy of about ten in the same household. Most sources count him as the first, or among the first, to believe in Muhammad's message — after Khadija, who was the first believer overall. Ali's exact age at the time, and whether he truly preceded other adult men in accepting Islam, remain matters of historical debate.
On the night of Muhammad's migration from Mecca, a group of Quraysh had planned to surround his house and kill him in his bed. Ali, then around twenty-two, volunteered to sleep in Muhammad's bed in his place, so the attackers would be deceived and Muhammad would have the chance to escape. He accepted this danger fully aware of the risk, and stayed behind in Mecca for a few days afterward, before joining Muhammad in Medina, to return to their owners the valuables people had entrusted to Muhammad's safekeeping.
Ali, around age twenty-three, married Muhammad's daughter Fatima in 623 CE. In the same years, he fought as one of the Medinan army's most prominent warriors at the Battle of BadrThe first major battle between the Muslims of Medina and the Quraysh of Mecca, in 624 CE, won by the heavily outnumbered Muslims. (624 CE) and the Battle of UhudThe second major battle between the Muslims and Quraysh, in 625 CE, on the slopes of Mount Uhud near Medina; despite an early Muslim advantage, the Muslims suffered heavy losses after a group of archers left their position. (625 CE). At the Battle of the TrenchThe siege of Medina by a coalition of Arab tribes in 627 CE, defeated by digging a trench around the city on Salman al-Farisi's suggestion. (627 CE), then around twenty-seven, when Amr ibn Abd WuddA renowned Quraysh warrior who, at the Battle of the Trench (627 CE), rode out challenging any Muslim to single combat; no one in the Muslim camp dared face him until Ali ibn Abi Talib stepped forward and killed him. Islamic sources treat this duel as a defining example of Ali's courage., a renowned Quraysh warrior, rode out challenging anyone to single combat and no one dared face him, Ali stepped forward and killed him — a duel Islamic sources treat as a defining example of his courage.
At the Battle of KhaybarA Jewish oasis settlement north of Medina, in present-day Saudi Arabia, conquered by the Muslims after a siege in 628 CE. According to a well-known account, Ali ibn Abi Talib played a prominent role in the battle, breaching the gate of one of its forts. (628 CE), Ali played a decisive role in breaching one of the oasis's strongest forts. In the years that followed, he stood alongside Fatima, Hasan, and Husayn in two notable family events: in the Hadith al-KisaA tradition in which Muhammad, one night, gathered Ali, Fatima, Hasan, and Husayn under his cloak (kisa) and referred to them as "Ahl al-Bayt" (the household). The tradition is recorded in both Shia and some Sunni sources, though Shia Islam gives it special weight and links it to the Verse of Purification (Quran, Surah al-Ahzab)., Muhammad gathered these four under his cloak; and for the MubahalaAn event in 631 CE in which Muhammad, after an inconclusive theological debate with a Christian delegation from Najran (in present-day Yemen), proposed a "mubahala": both sides would gather and ask God to expose whichever party was lying. Muhammad brought only Ali, Fatima, Hasan, and Husayn with him. The Najran delegation withdrew from the challenge at the last moment. Shia commentators read this choice as evidence of these four figures' special standing. with the Christian delegation of Najran, he brought only the same four with him.
Returning from the Farewell Pilgrimage in 632 CE, Muhammad spoke about Ali at Ghadir KhummA pond near Juhfa, on the route back from the Farewell Pilgrimage in 632 CE, where — according to Shia tradition — Muhammad named Ali ibn Abi Talib as his successor. Sunni tradition reads the same words as an expression of affection and closeness, not a political or religious appointment. This is one of the central points of divergence between the Shia and Sunni accounts of early Islamic history. — words Shia Muslims read as an explicit designation of succession, and Sunni Muslims read as an expression of affection and closeness. Shortly after, following Muhammad's death, the leaders of the Ansar and Muhajirun gathered at SaqifahA gathering of Ansar (Medinan Muslim) leaders immediately after Muhammad's death in 632 CE, held in a hall belonging to the Banu Sa'ida clan, where Abu Bakr was chosen as the first caliph. Ali ibn Abi Talib and some of his close supporters were not present. Sunni tradition views the choice as legitimate and consensus-based; Shia tradition sees it as a breach of Muhammad's earlier designation at Ghadir Khumm, and holds that Ali's allegiance was delayed for months. and chose Abu Bakr as caliph; Ali was not present at that gathering, and according to Shia sources his allegiance to Abu Bakr was delayed for months. Ali stepped back from political power for roughly twenty-five years — through the caliphates of Abu Bakr, Umar, and Uthman — serving mostly as an advisor and legal authority.
After Uthman's assassination in 656 CE, Ali, then around fifty-six, was chosen as the fourth caliph, but immediately faced internal unrest: first the Battle of the CamelThe first civil war among Muslims, fought in 656 CE near Basra, in present-day Iraq, between the forces of Caliph Ali ibn Abi Talib and a group led by Aisha, Talha, and al-Zubayr, who demanded retribution for the murder of Uthman. The battle takes its name from the camel Aisha rode during the fighting. Ali's forces won; Talha and al-Zubayr were killed, and Aisha was escorted back to Medina with honor. against a group led by AishaAisha bint Abi Bakr, one of Muhammad's wives and the daughter of the first caliph. After Uthman's murder she demanded retribution against his killers and took a stand against Ali ibn Abi Talib at the Battle of the Camel (656 CE); after her defeat, she was escorted back to Medina with honor and withdrew from politics., Talha, and al-Zubayr, then the Battle of SiffinA prolonged battle in 657 CE near the Euphrates, in present-day Syria, between the forces of Ali ibn Abi Talib and those of Muawiya, governor of Syria, who refused to accept Ali's caliphate or hand over Uthman's killers for retribution. The fighting ended inconclusively after Muawiya's side proposed arbitration, which part of Ali's army pressured him to accept. The arbitration's outcome led directly to the Kharijites splitting off from Ali's camp. against MuawiyaMuawiya ibn Abi Sufyan, governor of Syria during Ali ibn Abi Talib's caliphate and later the first Umayyad caliph. He refused to accept Ali's caliphate or hand over Uthman's killers, leading to the Battle of Siffin; after Ali's death and a peace agreement with Hasan, he ruled the entire Islamic realm., governor of Syria, which ended in an inconclusive arbitration and split off a group of his own soldiers, the KharijitesA group of Ali ibn Abi Talib's former supporters who broke with him after he accepted arbitration at the Battle of Siffin (657 CE), viewing it as defiance of God's judgment. They later declared both Ali and Muawiya to be unbelievers, becoming one of the earliest radical sects in Islamic history; they were defeated by Ali at the Battle of Nahrawan (658 CE).. Ali defeated this group at the Battle of NahrawanA clash in 658 CE near Nahrawan, in present-day Iraq, between Ali ibn Abi Talib's forces and the Kharijites — former supporters who had broken with him after the Siffin arbitration and declared his rule illegitimate. Ali won, and most of the Kharijites were killed, but the survivors kept their resentment alive; one of them, Ibn Muljam, later martyred Ali., but in 661 CE, around age sixty-one, during the dawn prayer in the mosque of KufaA city in present-day Iraq that Ali ibn Abi Talib made his capital during his caliphate (656–661 CE), and where he was martyred while praying in the city's mosque., he was struck with a poisoned sword by Ibn MuljamAbd al-Rahman ibn Muljam al-Muradi, a Kharijite who, seeking revenge for the defeat at Nahrawan, struck Ali ibn Abi Talib with a poisoned sword during the dawn prayer in the mosque of Kufa in 661 CE; Ali died two days later., one of the Kharijite survivors, and died two days later. He was buried in NajafA city in present-day Iraq, near Kufa, home to the shrine of Ali ibn Abi Talib and one of the most important pilgrimage and scholarly centers for Shia Muslims., near KufaA city in present-day Iraq that Ali ibn Abi Talib made his capital during his caliphate (656–661 CE), and where he was martyred while praying in the city's mosque..
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Khaybar, north of present-day Medina, Saudi Arabia
After the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah, the Muslims marched on this oasis to counter the potential threat of KhaybarA Jewish oasis settlement north of Medina, in present-day Saudi Arabia, conquered by the Muslims after a siege in 628 CE. According to a well-known account, Ali ibn Abi Talib played a prominent role in the battle, breaching the gate of one of its forts.'s Jewish tribes, some of whom were allied with Medina's opponents.
After a siege and several days of fighting, KhaybarA Jewish oasis settlement north of Medina, in present-day Saudi Arabia, conquered by the Muslims after a siege in 628 CE. According to a well-known account, Ali ibn Abi Talib played a prominent role in the battle, breaching the gate of one of its forts.'s forts fell one after another; Ali played a prominent role in breaching one of the strongest. KhaybarA Jewish oasis settlement north of Medina, in present-day Saudi Arabia, conquered by the Muslims after a siege in 628 CE. According to a well-known account, Ali ibn Abi Talib played a prominent role in the battle, breaching the gate of one of its forts.'s inhabitants were allowed to remain on their land in exchange for tribute.
near Basra, present-day Iraq
After Uthman's murder, AishaAisha bint Abi Bakr, one of Muhammad's wives and the daughter of the first caliph. After Uthman's murder she demanded retribution against his killers and took a stand against Ali ibn Abi Talib at the Battle of the Camel (656 CE); after her defeat, she was escorted back to Medina with honor and withdrew from politics., Talha, and al-Zubayr demanded immediate retribution against his killers, while Ali wanted order restored and the matter examined lawfully before acting; the disagreement escalated into armed confrontation.
Ali's forces won; Talha and al-Zubayr were killed in the fighting, and AishaAisha bint Abi Bakr, one of Muhammad's wives and the daughter of the first caliph. After Uthman's murder she demanded retribution against his killers and took a stand against Ali ibn Abi Talib at the Battle of the Camel (656 CE); after her defeat, she was escorted back to Medina with honor and withdrew from politics. was escorted back to Medina with honor and withdrew from politics.
near the Euphrates, present-day Syria
MuawiyaMuawiya ibn Abi Sufyan, governor of Syria during Ali ibn Abi Talib's caliphate and later the first Umayyad caliph. He refused to accept Ali's caliphate or hand over Uthman's killers, leading to the Battle of Siffin; after Ali's death and a peace agreement with Hasan, he ruled the entire Islamic realm. refused to accept Ali's caliphate or hand over Uthman's killers for retribution.
After months of inconclusive fighting, the battle ended when MuawiyaMuawiya ibn Abi Sufyan, governor of Syria during Ali ibn Abi Talib's caliphate and later the first Umayyad caliph. He refused to accept Ali's caliphate or hand over Uthman's killers, leading to the Battle of Siffin; after Ali's death and a peace agreement with Hasan, he ruled the entire Islamic realm.'s side proposed arbitration, which part of Ali's own army pressured him into accepting; the arbitration brought a clear advantage to neither side and fueled the KharijitesA group of Ali ibn Abi Talib's former supporters who broke with him after he accepted arbitration at the Battle of Siffin (657 CE), viewing it as defiance of God's judgment. They later declared both Ali and Muawiya to be unbelievers, becoming one of the earliest radical sects in Islamic history; they were defeated by Ali at the Battle of Nahrawan (658 CE).' split from Ali's camp.
near Nahrawan, present-day Iraq
A group of Ali's former supporters, who viewed acceptance of arbitration at Siffin as defiance of God's judgment, broke with him and declared his rule illegitimate.
Ali won, and most of the KharijitesA group of Ali ibn Abi Talib's former supporters who broke with him after he accepted arbitration at the Battle of Siffin (657 CE), viewing it as defiance of God's judgment. They later declared both Ali and Muawiya to be unbelievers, becoming one of the earliest radical sects in Islamic history; they were defeated by Ali at the Battle of Nahrawan (658 CE). were killed; but the survivors kept their resentment alive, and one of them, Ibn MuljamAbd al-Rahman ibn Muljam al-Muradi, a Kharijite who, seeking revenge for the defeat at Nahrawan, struck Ali ibn Abi Talib with a poisoned sword during the dawn prayer in the mosque of Kufa in 661 CE; Ali died two days later., martyred Ali three years later.
The succession to Muhammad is one of the greatest points of division in Islamic history: Shia Muslims believe Muhammad explicitly designated Ali as his successor at Ghadir KhummA pond near Juhfa, on the route back from the Farewell Pilgrimage in 632 CE, where — according to Shia tradition — Muhammad named Ali ibn Abi Talib as his successor. Sunni tradition reads the same words as an expression of affection and closeness, not a political or religious appointment. This is one of the central points of divergence between the Shia and Sunni accounts of early Islamic history., and that the choice at SaqifahA gathering of Ansar (Medinan Muslim) leaders immediately after Muhammad's death in 632 CE, held in a hall belonging to the Banu Sa'ida clan, where Abu Bakr was chosen as the first caliph. Ali ibn Abi Talib and some of his close supporters were not present. Sunni tradition views the choice as legitimate and consensus-based; Shia tradition sees it as a breach of Muhammad's earlier designation at Ghadir Khumm, and holds that Ali's allegiance was delayed for months. violated that designation; Sunni Muslims read the Ghadir event as an expression of affection and regard the choice of Abu Bakr as legitimate, grounded in the consensus and consultation of the Muslim community.
The length and nature of Ali's delay in pledging allegiance to Abu Bakr is reported differently across sources — from a few weeks to about six months — and whether this delay signaled serious protest or simply a period of mourning remains a matter of historical debate.
Ali's acceptance of arbitration at Siffin has been criticized in historical sources as a strategic mistake, and also defended as the only way to prevent his army's complete collapse in that moment.
Exact casualty figures for the battles of the Camel, Siffin, and Nahrawan vary across sources and should be treated with caution.
Shia Muslims believe that, shortly before his death, the Prophet clearly said Ali would be his successor. Sunni Muslims understand those same words differently. This is one of the biggest disagreements in Islamic history, and historians still debate it today.
After the Prophet died, it took twenty-five years before Ali became caliph. During his own short time as caliph, several civil wars broke out among Muslims: the Battle of the CamelThe first civil war among Muslims, fought in 656 CE near Basra, in present-day Iraq, between the forces of Caliph Ali ibn Abi Talib and a group led by Aisha, Talha, and al-Zubayr, who demanded retribution for the murder of Uthman. The battle takes its name from the camel Aisha rode during the fighting. Ali's forces won; Talha and al-Zubayr were killed, and Aisha was escorted back to Medina with honor., the Battle of SiffinA prolonged battle in 657 CE near the Euphrates, in present-day Syria, between the forces of Ali ibn Abi Talib and those of Muawiya, governor of Syria, who refused to accept Ali's caliphate or hand over Uthman's killers for retribution. The fighting ended inconclusively after Muawiya's side proposed arbitration, which part of Ali's army pressured him to accept. The arbitration's outcome led directly to the Kharijites splitting off from Ali's camp., and the Battle of NahrawanA clash in 658 CE near Nahrawan, in present-day Iraq, between Ali ibn Abi Talib's forces and the Kharijites — former supporters who had broken with him after the Siffin arbitration and declared his rule illegitimate. Ali won, and most of the Kharijites were killed, but the survivors kept their resentment alive; one of them, Ibn Muljam, later martyred Ali..
Ali was killed while praying in the mosque of KufaA city in present-day Iraq that Ali ibn Abi Talib made his capital during his caliphate (656–661 CE), and where he was martyred while praying in the city's mosque., by one of the very people he had once fought against.
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